第三章 关系词
关系词也起连接两个句子的作用。关系词引导的从句叫定语从句,充当形容词的角色。
# 第一节 关系代词
关系代词有 who、whom、which、that 四种。
使用关系代词的三个原则:
- 关系代词前面必须有先行词(表人或事物的名词);
- 关系代词在所引导的定语从句中作主语、宾语或表语;
- 如果不符合第2条,则关系代词前一定要有介词。
注意:限制性定语从句中,如果关系代词是及物动词宾语,则关系代词可以省略;如果关系代词是介词的宾语,则当该介词置于句尾时,关系代词可以省略。that 也遵循该省略规则。
关系代词前一定要有介词指的是关系代词引导的定语从句中的动词为不及物动词,因此需要加入介词才能让关系代词在该从句中作介词的宾语。此时该接词可以放在关系代词之前,也可以放在该不及物动词之后。当介词置于该不及物动词之后时,关系代词可以省略。介词的选取是由该不及物动词决定的。当遇到有些固定的动词短语(如:pay attention to 等等)时,应该将它看作一个整体,因此不要将介词拆开
# 限制性定语从句和非限制性定语从句
- 一般来说,非限制性定语从句的先行词都具有唯一性或者是说话双方都明确知道的某一个,因此不能再被加以限定。非限制性定语从句的关系代词前必须要加逗号,且关系代词一定不能省略。
- 限制性定语从句的先行词没有限定性,所以可以用定语从句来限定。限制性定语从句的关系代词前不能加逗号,且在符合条件时关系代词可以省略。
- 从意义上来说,限制性定语从句应该以“... 的”的形式译出,并直接放在先行词中文含义的前面。非限制性定语从句在翻译时,应按照英语的格式,翻译主句,然后置逗号,然后翻译从句。
# 可以用 that 的情况
- 该定语从句为限制性定语从句。
- 关系代词之前没有介词,即动词为及物动词或者该介词被置于句尾。
同时满足上述两个条件时,就可以用 that 替代 who、whom、which 了。
I like the girl that is sitting there.
# 必须用 that 的情况
序数词后。the first/second/.../last + 先行词 + that;
先行词为最高级;
“the very + 名词”之后。这是一种强调用法,翻译时 very 不必译出;
表示全体的词后。如:all、everything、everyone 等等。此时 that 通常省略;
“the only + 名词”之后;
句中若有两个相同的关系代词时,第二个关系代词要用 that;
He works hard, which is a fact
whichthat is known to us.关系代词作be动词的表语,且表示某人身份时,必须用 that;
He is not the man that he once was.
两个现行词性质不一致时,必须用 that;
Look at the boy and the dog that are coming this way.
避免疑问词重复。
Who
whothat lies can win our trust?
# 限制性定语从句化简为分词短语
在限制性定语从句中,若关系代词在从句中作主语时,可按照下列步骤化简:
删除该关系代词;
之后的动词变成现在分词;
若动词为be动词,则变成 being,并可将 being 省略。
The girl who danced here yesterday is my sister. -> The girl dancing here yesterday is my sister.
I like the car which is parked in front of the post office. -> I like the car (being) parked in front of the post office.
注意:非限制性定语从句不能简化为分词短语
# 非限制性定语动句化简为先行词的同位语
在非限制性定语从句中,若关系代词在从句中作be动词前面的主语时(换言之,先行词肯定不能为 whom),可按照下列步骤化简:
删除该关系代词;
之后的be动词变成现在分词 being;
省略 being,形成同位语。
He works hard, which is a fact that is known to all of us. -> He works hard, a fact known to all of us.
注意:此句化简了两次,第一次是非限制性定语动句化简,第二次是限制性定语从句化简,请仔细考察。
注意:主句主语的同位语可以放在该主语的前面或后面,若放在前面,则在同位语后加逗号,若放在后面,则在同位语前后都要加逗号;主句宾语的同位语只能放在该宾语的后面,并在同位语前面加逗号。
# 定语从句的插入语
插入语是由“主语 + 表认知的动词”组成的。如 I think、I believe、I know 等等。
定语从句中的插入语通常放在定语从句的主语后面,且此时关系代词不会因为插入语而改成宾格。但翻译时应将插入语放在译文最前面。
He is a man who I think never breaks his word. (我认为他是个从不食言的人)。
注意:作插入语时,这些认知动词应为完全及物动词;但是它们也可以做不完全不及物动词,当作不完全不及物动词时它们就不再是插入语了。
He is a man I think him to be nice.(❌) -> He is a man I think whom to be nice.(❌) -> He is a man whom I think to be nice.(⭕️)
# 定语从句化简为不定式短语
若定语从句的关系代词前面有介词时,该从句可化简为不定式短语。且有两种形式。
He has no house in which he can live. -> He has no house in which to live. -> He has no house to live in.
# 第二节 关系代词所有格
关系代词所有格只有一个:whose。
使用关系代词所有格的三个原则:
关系代词所有格前面要有先行词(表人或事物的名词);
该关系代词所有格后的名词在定语从句中作主语、宾语;
如果不符合第2条,则关系代词所有格前一定要有介词,该介词可移至句尾。
I hate John, whose words I have no trust in.
注意:whose 引导的定语从句也有限制性和非限制性之分,两者的区别与关系代词引导的定语从句相同。
# 可取代 whose 的结构
当 whose 指代物时,可变化为这两个结构:1. the + 名词 + of which;2. of which + the + 名词。
I like to study in this school, whose faculty and facilities are top-notch. -> I like to study in this school, of which the faculty and facilities are top-notch. -> I like to study in this school, the faculty and facilities of which are top-notch.
# 第三节 关系副词
关系副词有四种,均由“介词 + 关系代词which”变化而成:
- where = in which、on which、at which
- when = in which、on which、at which
- why = for which
- how = in which
等号左右的内容可以相互替换,但是需要注意 where 和 when 究竟用那个等价形式替代是由其指代的地点或时间决定的,比如:大地方用 in,小地方用 at ,等等。
注意:除 how 外,其他关系副词均可与现行词共存,如:the reason why、the reason for which;但是 how 不能与现行词共存,如:the way how 是错的,而 the way in which 是可以的。
# 关系副词的注意事项
在限制性定语动句中,除 where 外,when 和 why 均可省略,而 how 一定要省略;
where、when、why、how 的现行词在主句中作be动词的表语时,可以省略现行词;
That is the day when he'll come. -> That's when he'll come.
where、when、why、how 也可引导名词性从句,要注意区分;
where 还可作副词连词。
Put it in the place where you found it.(关系副词) -> Put it where you found it.(副词连词)
the moment、the instance、the minute 均可以作 when 的先行词,同时 when 可以省略,此时三者可以看作是副词连词,与 as soon as 等价。
The moment (when) he heard the sad news, he burst into tears.
有时也可以用 that 替代 when 和 why 作为关系副词,但这不是常规用法,应当避免。
# 第四节 关系指示代词
关系指示代词只有一个:which。它是由指示代词 this、that、these、those 变换而来的。
使用关系指示代词时,可以先按照中文直接造句,比如
他很自大,这种态度我很讨厌。-> He is arrogant, this attitude I am sick of. (❌)
然后将指示代词 this 换成 which。 -> He is arrogant, which attitude I am sick of. (⭕️)
# 第五节 复合关系代词
复合关系代词均有“任何...”、“凡...”的意思。
复合关系代词通常由 anything、anybody 等一类的先行词和关系代词组合而成,因此称为复合关系代词:
- 代替人:whoever = anybody who (凡...的人)、whomever = anybody whom (凡...的人);
- 代替物:what = the thing(s) which (所...的东西)、whatever = anything which (...的任何东西);
- 代替人或物:whichever = any one which/who (三者以上,同一类的任何一个...)、whichever = either which/who (两者,同一类的任何一个...)
只要句子中存在等号右边的结构,就可以用等号左边的复合关系代词替换。如:
Anybody who makes such a mistake should be punished. -> Whoever makes such a mistake should be punished.
Give it to anybody whom you like. -> Give it to whomever you like.
You can take any book which you like. -> You can take whichever you like. 其中 whichever 必须指代同一类的几个物品或人。
# what、whatever
what = the thing(s) which,因此 what 引导的表语从句与 what 引导的名词性从句是一样的,如:
The things which brothers me is that I have no time. -> What brothers me is that I have no time.
首先,whatever 与 whichever 类似,但是 whatever 指的是不同类的许多物品;其次,whatever 的用法与 what 完全一致,但它的语气更强,突出“任何;每一”的意思。
# 其他用法及注意事项
# whatever、whoever
whatever 和 whoever 也可以作副词连词,此时它们的等价表示为 no matter what 和 no matter who。
它们做副词连词时,引导的是状语从句,符合状语从句的一切规则,此时去掉该从句后,主句仍然是完整的句子,但如果作复合关系代词时,去掉该从句,主句就不完整了。
Whatever he says, it is a lie. (作副词连词,去掉划线部分从句,主句依然完整)
Whatever he says is a lie. (作复合关系代词,去掉划线部分从句,主句缺少主语)
# however
虽然和复合关系代词长的很像,但 however 不是复合关系代词。
它要么作连接性副词,要么作副词连词。它作副词连词时等价于 no matter how。译为“无论如何”
No matter how nice he is, I don't like him. -> However nice he is, I don't like him.
它作副词连词时,如果它引导的状语从句在主语后由“be动词 + 形容词”的结构,则由以下变化:
However poor he is, he doesn't want anyone to help him. -> However poor he may be, he doesn't want anyone to help him. -> Be he ever so poor, he doesn't want anyone to help him.
# whether
whether 虽然解释为“无论如何”,但是它没有 no matter whether 的等价形式。它是副词连词,但也可以用来引导名词性从句。
# 第六节 准关系代词
准关系代词只有三个:than、as、but。但因为使用中它们简化了很多,所以很难看出它们原来的样的。
than = than + the + 之前的名词 + 关系代词
I have more money than the money which you do. -> I have more money than you (do).
as = as + the +之前的名词 + 关系代词,但是 as 只有在下面三个句型中才能如此省略;
such + 名词 + as ...
I don't like such a man as the man who tells lies. -> I don't like such a man as tells lies.
the same + 名词 + as ...
I have the same dictionary as the dictionary which you bought yesterday. -> I have the same dictionary as you bought yesterday.
as + 形容词 + 名词 + as ...
He is as good a man as the man that John is. -> He is as good a man as John is.
but 作为准关系代词,只能用在“no + 名词”之后,此时 but 等价于 关系代词...not
There is nothing which he is not fond of. -> There is nothing but he is fond of.
# 使用 as 的注意事项
such + 名词 后面必须使用 as 不能使用 like;
the same...as... 指的是相同的两个物体,the same...that... 值得是同一个物体;
I have the same book as he is reading. (两本相同的书)
I borrowed the same book that he borrowed last week. (同一本书)
as 可替代主句,此时 as 为关系代词,等同于 which,但有如下限制条件:
修饰主句的从句只能放在主句后
He is nice, as we all know.
遇到 as + be动词 + 动词过去分词 结构时,be动词可以省略
He is nice, which was mentioned before. -> He is nice, as was mentioned before. -> He is nice, as mentioned before.
还有一些比较特殊的简化句子
He was drunk, as is usual with him. -> He was drunk, as usual.
His conditions are as what follows. -> His conditions are as follows.(此句型中,无论之前的名词是单数还是复数,动词是什么时态,as 后面永远是 follows)。
as + 形容词 + 名词 + as... 句型中的名词必须是单数可数名词
- 其他必须为单数可数名词的句型还有:so...that...、too...to...、how...
- 使用修饰数量的形容词 many、much、few、little 时可不受单数可数名词限制